Al-Huda
Foundation, NJ U. S. A
the Message Continues ... 3/116
Newsletter for April 2011
Article 1 - Article 2 - Article 3 - Article 4 - Article 5 - Article 6 - Article 7 - Article 8 - Article 9 - Article 10 - Article 11 - Article 12
IQBAL ON DEMOCRACY
Dr. Sultan Khan
DEFINITION:
Democracy is a word that comes from two Greek roots. Demos, the
populace and the Kratia the Rule, taken together, rule by the
people, hence democracy in this sense means government by the
mass of the people as distinguished from those with special rank
or status. The Greeks used the term to describe the government
of Athens, and other Greek city states, that flourished in the
fifth century B.C.[1]
Democracy is the government by the people. All the competent
adults participate in all decisions of government. Elections are
insituted in which the people vote on questions of policy and
for persons to represent them on an Assembly (legislature) that
determines policy on day to day issues. In the case of
Parliamentary democracy, this Assembly in turn appoints a
cabinet and a leader (P.M.) to carry out the policies
determined. In the case of congressional democracy, the leader
is elected separately and then appoints the executive committee
with the advice and consent of the legislative committee.[2]
Beginning with the reborn of democracy in late 18th century, its
debates boiled down in to three basic schools of thought i.e.
ideological, classical and empirical or pragmatic. The
ideological school, which usually overlaps with liberalism in
its ideological sense, emphasized on the questions of justice,
equality, liberty and whether or not the mass of the people
actually participated in the decisions of the government. The
classical school did deny the contention of ideological school,
but contended that the ideals would tend to be natural outcome
or result of certain institutions and procedure. They believe
that democracy provides mechanism through which the decisions
were made by the poeple and ideological characteristics would
then follow naturally.[3] The empirical school defined democracy
in pragmatic terms as a form of government, in which individuals
acquire power to decide on policy issues by means of periodic
competitive struggle for the people vote.[4]
Both etymology and history suggest that primary meaning of
‘democracy’ relates to a form of government. According to the
classical tradition it is government by the many, as contrasted
with government by one or few.[5]
Heroditus, a renowned political philosopher, defined democracy
as “the rule of many as also as a society in which equality
before law” prevails and where the holder of Political Office is
answerable to what he does.[6] Lord Bryce accepts the definition
of Heroditus and says that “democracy devotes that the form of
government in which the ruling power of the state is largely
vested in the member of community as a whole”. He adds, this
means in communities, which act by voting, that rule belongs to
the majority, as no other method has been found for determining
peaceably and legally, what is to be declared the will of the
community, which is not unanimous?[7]
The Oxford Dictionary defines democracy as a government in which
the sovereign power resides in the people as a whole and is
exercised either directly by them---or by officers elected by
them. In modern use often more vaguely denoting a social state
in which all have equal rights without hereditary or arbitrary
differences of rank of privilege.[8]
Democracy signifies “a government in which majority of whole
nation or community partake of the sovereign power.” It is also
used to signify “a government, in which either a majority or a
large portion of the people have by means of the right of
election, an influence on the appointment of the members of the
supreme power”.[9]
Democracy, today is, a political system, which supplies regular
constitutional opportunities for changing the government
officials a social mechanism, which permit: the largest possible
part of the population to influence major: decisions by choosing
among contenders for political office.[10]
Bettelheim has also defined democracy as Characteristic of
democratic ideology is its affirmation of the social importance
of the principle of liberty and equality, the participation of
whole population (or a large part of it) ii important social
decisions, free access of all members o society to seat at
public offices and the availability to al members of society (or
fairly large portion of them) of the means necessary to their
full physical and intellectual developments.’’[11]
The mere consent of the people is not sufficient ti make a
government democratic. The people ought to be their own “watch
dogs”. The consent of the people must be real, active and
effective in order to make it a genuine democracy. Eternal
vigilance is the very life of democracy, if democracy can really
claim in the words of President Abraham Lincoln, “to be “a
government of the people, by the people and for the people.
Government is of course always o the people, but it needs to be
government by the people where the will of the people remain
supreme in all questions of social direction and policy of
government.
Corry and Abraham have explained democracy in these words: “From
the view point of popular understanding the word “democracy”
provides a fascinating paradox. Few terms so ideally and
favorably used by the people of free world and at the same time
mean so many different thing to them. Lip-service to the
democracy is almost universal even when, it is being
misunderstood and often betrayed in practice.[12]
Prof. Laski, an eminent political thinker, has also gave his
views about democracy, No definition of democracy can adequately
compromise the vast history, which the concept connotes. To
some, it is a form of a government, to other, it is a way of
social life. Men have found its essence in the character of
electorate the relation between the government and people, the
absence of wide economic differences between citizens the
refusal to recognise privilages built on birth or wealth, race
or creed. Inevitably, it has changed its substance in terms of
time and place.[13]
In short, the essence of democracy can be summerised by paying
that a democratic state is based on the will of the people,
which operates through an electoral machinery, run by the
continuous interaction and free play of informed and enlightened
public opinion. It is an effort to reconcile freedom with the
requirements of law and its enforcement or a political method by
which citizens are provided with an opportunity to participate
through debate and discussion in an attempt to arrive at certain
agreements, by which the common good of the community can be
ensured.[14]
Keeping in view, the above definitions and explanations of
democracy many questions arise in a mind, and many
clarifications are needed for the criteria of democracy. Whether
elections are tree and held frequently and periodically and
electors and electorates are freely allowed to participate?
Whether such elections provides an effective choice and majority
vote against the government, leads to a change? Whether elected
bodies have the rights of legislation, taxation and budgeting
effectively? If the answer of all these questions is “yes” then
we can say that the democracy is operating properly.
Lastly, it can also be said that the democracy is based on a
belief in the value of individual human being and a further
criterion is, therefore, the extent to which certain basic
rights are guaranteed to every citizen. These are, the security
against arbitrary arrest and imprisonment; freedom of speech, of
press and of assembly, freedom of petition and of association;
freedom of movement; freedom of religion and of teaching. As a
corollary, democracy is held to require the establishment of an
independent judiciary, and courts of an independent judiciary,
to which every one have access.[15]
The spirit of democracy had become a sort of faith for Europeans
during the 19th century, but with the turn of 20th century, a
scepticism arose in respect of suitability of democracy, and as
to whether it could meet the challenge of modern times. Epithets
like “cult of incompetence” and “internal infant” became common
to scholarly and political debate of the day. It was severely
criticized for its show and cumbersome procedures and its
inability to meet emergencies.[16] Iqbal also entered in the
debate and showed his disliking against the democracy, as his
outlook was based on Quranic teachings; which are against the
western democracy and its basic principles.
DEMOCRACY V/S ISLAM
The Western democracy is based on the belief in value of
individuals and their participation in the working of
governmental machinery. It guarantees certain basic rights to
the individuals; the freedom of speech, opinion, assembly,
association, movement, religion and security against arbitrary
arrest and imprisonment. Historically speaking all the
democratic ideals were derived from the principles of Islam and
first Islamic state of Madina.
The first Islamic state was founded by the Holy Prophet (PBUH)
and cemented by his four right-guided successors. Many
democratic ideals and institutions were established in the
Islamic state. The election of head of state, the shura, the
provision of equal justice to all citizens, and the promotion of
individual and public welfare, were the examples of democratic
ideals in the first Islamic state.
The Prophet of Islam died without providing for an immediate
succession to the office of his vicegerent. The election of Abu
Bakr, as Caliph, has obviously introduced for the first time in
the world history the “popular factor”, in the selection of
chief executive of the state.[17] Later on the ‘principle of
election’ was followed by the other Right guided caliphs. To
describe the election the Islamic Holy constitution uses the
word Shura, or the right of Muslims to participate in the choice
of their leader.
The primary purposes of the first Islamic state were the
ensurance of freedom from outside invasion, the provision of
justice equality, liberty, and personal as well as material
security for its people. These goals were the subject matter of
the ‘Declaration of Madina”[18] the first written constitution
of first Islamic state attained the highest degree or order
consistent with the liberty and equality of individuals and
groups, in Islamic society.
The major aim of the Islamic state was to fuse all existing
divergences into one homogenous nation, and the promotion of
individual interest and the public welfare. The same version was
declared in the Holy Quran for many times.
The first Islamic state also proposed a comprehensive law for
the guidance of the human beings.[19] This law, actually and
dominantly, has been controlling and guiding the civilized life
on the earth,[20] since its birth. This rule of Law, is known in
the western world, as supremacy of Law.
The Islamic state also granted many other rights along with the
freedom of speech to its subjects. A Bedouin, in
Friday-congregation, stands and asks the second caliph for the
clothings, he wore. The caliph politely satisfied him, by
addressing his son, to give the answer. The modern world does
not experience such a freedom and liberty. Here, I like to
revise my stand that all the democratic ideals were derived,
from the principles of Islam and the first Islamic state, headed
by the Holy Prophet (PBUH).
The following lines are reserved for the comparative study of
the ideals of Islam and the basic principles of democracy. Again
coming towards democracy, there is no consensus on the exact
meaning of democracy, as a political system, and no one can
adopt a single definition for reference,[21] but the term stands
for the some principles; a recognition of value of individual
irrespective of race, creed and quality; acceptance of law,
which regulates all social and political relationships the
equality of all citizens, regardless of their racial, ethnic and
class distinction; justifiability of state decisions on the
bases of popular consent of people and a high degree of
tolerance.[22]
Islam contains many basic principles; which are prerequisites
for democracy. To start with the Quranic verse which declares:
“And seek, in what ever God has bestowed upon you, the next
world, but do not forget you participation and share in this
world, and be nice as God has been kind to you, and never seek
doing corruption in the earth verily God does not love
corruptors”.[23]
The Holy Quran again declare as under:‑
“God commands you to render back trusts to those who deserve
them. And when you judge or rule the people, you should judge or
rule with justice. Verily how excellent is the teaching, which
has given to you, for God is He, Who hears and sees all things.
O! you, who believe, obey God and obey the Prophet (PBUH) and
those charged with authority among you, if you differ in any
thing (if any dispute arises among you on any matter) refer it
to God and His Prophet. If you believe in God and the Last Day,
that is the best and the most suitable for final reckoning.”[24]
In the above mentioned verses of the Holy Quran, the basic
principles of an Islamic state are laid down, to be followed by
the Believers. All these principles are compatible with
principles of western democracy.
The concept of equality in Islam is comparable with the concept
of modern democracy. The Islamic equality means all individuals
(Insan) are equal irrespective of believe, race, creed,
nationality and political standing. The only valid ground, on
which an individual may be superior to another is his fear of
God or piety (Taqwa).
It is true that in Islam all men are equal as member of ummah,
bound together in community by ties, not of kinship or race but
of religious acknowledgement of one God and apostolic mission of
His Prophet Muhammad (PBUH). There is, of course,
differentiation of functions of individual in society but before
God all are equal without reference to rank class or race. The
only nobility in Islam is that of pious and Godly (Quran).[25]
The Islamic state would grant equal freedom of conscience to all
citizens and respect their mode of life, if they do not violate
the fundamentals of social justice.[26] This shows that the
concept of equality in Islam is more comprehensive than in
western democracy.
Likewise, if by democracy is meant a system of government which
is opposite to dictatorship. Islam can be compatible with
democracy, because there is no room in Islam, for tyranny or
arbitrary rule by one man or a group of men. Islam does not
recognise monarchical government and it strucks at the root of
feudalism by prohibition of primogeniture, which creates and
preserves feudal estates.[27]
The Islamic state follows a body of regulations i.e. Sharia,
drawn from Quran and tradition Sunnah. Thus the function of
Islamic state is reduced to a mere sub-servience to, and a
smooth enforcement of, The Divine orders. A state in this sense
is transformed into a political organisation that represents the
will of God Almighty alone and of no other worldly authority
irrespective of its influence of any nature.[28] In this regard,
Islam satisfies another prerequisite of democracy, which is rule
of law,[29] as any kind “of prerogative to the ruler is denied
and both ruler and ruled are required to obey the laws of “Sharia”.
Islam can pass yet another moral test of democracy, when it is
said that all the decisions in Islamic state is made with wishes
of the ruled.[30] This requirement is met by the principle of “Shura”
(consultation) and “Ijma” (consensus); which are drawn from both
“Quran” and “Sunnah”. In enumerating the qualities of a good
Muslim the Holy Quran mentions consultation on the same footing
as compliance with God’s order; saying the prayer and payment of
alms-tax. The Holy Prophet (PBUH) and his four pious caliphs
also made consultation, on the important issues, with the mass
of the people.
If the democracy means the election of head of state or head of
executive for a fixed term, whereafter a new election is to be
organized.[31] The Islamic state organises the same and gives
the individuals the chance to participate in the choice of their
leadership. Similarly, it gives majority, the right to remove
the head from the post as the contract of appointment is
revocable. None of the four Right-guided caliphs came to power
through intimidation or coercion, but they assumed the office
through the free choice of the majority of ummah.[32]
There is a wide scope of legislation in the western democracy,
while in Islam, essentials of legislation shall be derived from
the basic principles of Quran and the practice followed by the
Holy Prophet (PBUH): Otherwise almost the entire field of
legislation shall be left unhampered, to be moulded as
circumstances demand by men of knowledge, who know and can
evaluate the actualities of a situation.[33] This mode of
legislation is popularly known as Ijtihad (systematic reasoning)
and Ijma (consensus), but the revelation and the Holy Prophet’s
traditions always play the decisive role.[34] The Muslims are
entitled to make laws which are of public interest, keeping in
view the fact that such laws do not conflict with basic laws of
Sharia.[35] Islam, again can complete the western democracy, in
this aspect.
On the other hand, Islamic democracy remains different from
western democracy in some important aspects. In Islam
Sovereignty really and ultimately vests in God, where as
representatively and manipulatively vests in His Holy Prophet
(PBUH),[36] and rules of Sharia act as eternal moral forces to
keep the Believers on the right path; while in democracy,
sovereignty rests with the masses and they play the absolute
role in the political affairs of the country.
Islamic state is an ideological state. It is the creation of an
ideal and is sustained by a steady and sincere adherence to the
dictates of the ideals.[37] The Islamic state has to play
two-fold role. It creates relation of man to God, and relation
of man to men or humanity. While the western democratic state
has no such ideals, having no goal of the welfare of whole
human-beings.
In western democracy elections are held on the basis of adult
franchise irrespective of all conditions and pre requisites.
Therefore, it is possible that undesirable and incompetent
people are elected to various public offices, who are unable to
run the affairs to the state. Islam imposed certain restrictions
on suitability of the persons who are candidates for different
offices of the state. Islam also prevents any individual from
nominating himself for the state office or asking to be
nominated in any official position.[38] Islam has not barred any
citizen for casting vote on the basis of literacy or illiteracy
or sex. This has been explained in the sunnah verse:
Abu Musa one of the Prophet’s companions said, “I entered the
Prophet’s house with men of my clan; both of them asked the
Prophet, saying: 0, Messenger of God, would you please appoint
us in one of the public offices, which God has put in your
hands? The Prophet (PUBH) said, “We, by God’s name, do not
appoint to the public offices (in our state) those who ask for
them, nor any one, who is covetous for such a thing.”[39]
There is clear distinction between the Islamic system of Shura
and the defective and imbalanced system of western democracy.
Islam has imposed four conditions for the candidature of Shura.
He should possess a firm and profound belief in tenents of
Islam. He should possess integrity of character. He should have
reasonable knowledge and necessary understanding of the job and
responsibility, which is being entrusted to him. He should have
not only a good intellectual personality but an impressive
physical personality.[40] The rules of western democracy are
insensitive to these aesthetic considerations.
The member of Islamic Majlis-e-Shura always speaks and acts on
behalf of entire Muslim Nation. He plays dual role performing
the dual responsibility. His dual responsibility makes
representation more difficult than in western democracy. He has
the responsibility to his electorate to present and to look
after their interests in accordance to the Holy Islamic
constitution. His second burden is as a representative of a
government office, which acts for the Islamic nation as a whole
Simply, he is responsible to his electorates as well as to the
“Divine Law”[41] or the will of Allah Almightly, While in
western democracy, the member of Assembly or Congress or
Parliament has single responsibility, which is to electorates
only.
IQBAL ON DIFFERENT BASIC PRINCIPLES OF DEMOCRACY
i) Sovereignty of People:
Iqbal criticizes western principles of democracy in the
strongest possible terms. In his opinion, the west, by evolving
perverted democratic principles has unchained a monster,
therefore a barren land is better than the garden of west. Iqbal
has opposed the western democracy as it is a methodology rather
than an ideology or philosophy.[42] The methodology should be
treated as methodology and not as ideology. Iqbal believes, as
it is not qualitative and the decisions made on the basis of
quantity are not correct. Iqbal criticises the aspect of
“sovereignty of people” of the western democracy; which rests
with the masses, who have no capacity and capability of the
same.
In one of his poems, under the caption Jumhurriat in
Payam-i-Mushriq. Iqbal says that you seek the treasures of our
alien philosophy from the common, poor of mind and low grade
people, as the crawling ants on the ground, can not attain the
heights of wisdom of Hazrat Sulayman (The Prophet of God). You
should avoid democracy and become within the bond of perfect man
(the Holy Prophet), as two hundred donkeys can not have combined
the brain of a man.
متاع معنئ بیگانہ از دوں فطرتاں جوئی
زموران شوخی طبع سلیمانے نمی آید
گریز از طرز جمہوری غلام پختہ کارے شو
کہ از مغز دو صد خر فکر انسانے نمی آید[43]
Explaining the quantitative aspect of the western democracy,
Iqbal adds, a European gentleman has disclosed this secret, that
men of wisdom do not disclose what they have in their mind; and
democracy is a kind of government, in which individuals are
counted and not weighed.
اس راز کو اک مرد فرنگي نے کیا فارش
ہر چند کہ دانا اسے کھولا نہیں کرتے
جمہوریت اک طرز حکومت ہے کہ جس میں
بندوں کو گنا کرتے ہیں تولا نہیں کرتے[44]
Iqbal believes that a common man has not wisdom, as well as his
own opinion, but he is generally influenced by the opinion of
capitalists and industrialists, through the propaganda tactics.
Thus the other’s opinion was imposed on a common man, as such he
is exploited in democracy; likewise, he is exploited in
dictatorship, monarchy, aristocracy and fascism. Therefore, in
Iqbal’s views, there is no difference between democracy and
other forms of government. In Bang-i-Dara, he points out that
western democratic institutions are old wines in new bottles,
which contain no tunes other then the imperial one. It is the
demon of despotism, dancing in the garb of democracy; and you
think it is a fairy of freedom.
ہے وہی ساز کہن مغرب کا جمہوری نظام
جس کے پردوں میں نہیں غیر از نوائے قیصری
دیو استبداد جمہوری قبا میں پائے کوب
تو سمجھتا ہے، یہ آزادی کی ہے نیلم پری![45]
Iqbal adds that the common people hope that they will enjoy
their rights and privileges in democracy; but they can not enjoy
their rights in this system, as the so-called law-making
assemblies, rights and duties are only narcotics, Debates in the
parliaments and assemblies are nothing, but warfare of
capitalists to make more money. You have taken this mirage of
color and smell for a garden, I am so, sorry for you, as you
have understood the cage, as your nest, due to your foolishness.
مجلس آئین و اصلاح و رعایات و حقوق
طب مغرب میں مزے میٹھے، اثر خواب آوری
گرمی گفتار اعضائے مجالس الاماں!
یہ بھی اک سرمایہ داروں کی ہے جنگ زرگری
اس سراب رنگ و بو کو گلستان سمجھا ہے تو
آہ اے ناداں! قفس کو آشیاں سمجھا ہے تو[46]
Iqbal is not all alone in criticism of western democracy, but
many European political philosophers i.e. Laski, Spengler,
Steandal, and Nietzsche, also joined his hands. - These
philosophers were against the western democracy due to the
persecution and harassment of the common man, by the
capitalists.
ii) Secularism:
Secularism is another basic characteristic of the western
democracy; due to which Iqbal hates the democracy. The
secularism means the separation of religion from politics. In
other words, the religion has no public status, but has been
reduced to a private affair.
According to Iqbal, the politics, in which religion is made a
separate and private entity, is a defective one, and it is shame
for humanity. The nations, which believe in secularism can not
exist longer. Iqbal firmly persuaded that in the name of secular
democracy, thousand of atrocities have been committed in the
world. In the hands of infidels, this method perpetuates
infidelity and has failed to mitigate the miseries and black
spots of the world.[47] In this regard, Iqbal reports the
“Satan” as saying: “There is no need of my presence in the world
as there are enough devils in the shape of politicians in
western democracy”.
جمہور کے ابلیس ہیں ارباب سیاست
باقی نہیں اب میری ضرورت تہ افلاک[48]
Iqbal again, condemns the western democracy, which is divorced
from religion. According to him, the secular politics and
democracy is pestered with many ills, and it evolved itself as
unchained monster, as the state has been separated from church.
مری نگاہ میں ہے یہ سیاست لا دیں
کنیز اہرمن و دوں نہاد و مردہ ضمیر
ہوئی ہے ترک کلیسا سے حاکمی آزاد
فرنگیوں کی سیاست ہے دیو بے زنجیر[49]
Iqbal further says that the western democracy is not only
irreligious and faithless, but it is wrought by the capitalists
for their own sinister designs. God has created one devil, while
Europe has created numberless devils in the shape of democrates.
تری حریف ہے یا رب سیاست افرنگ
مگر ہیں اس کے پجاری فقط امیر و رئیس!
بنایا ایک ہی ابلیس آگ سے تو نے
بنائے خاک سے اس نے صد ہزار ابلیس[50]
Activities, which destroyed the social life of the human-beings.
According to Iqbal, the unemployment, immorality, alcoholism and
poverty are the great victories of the western civilization.
بیکاری و عریانی و مئے خواری و افلاس
کیا کم ہیں فرنگی مدنیّت کی فتوحات[51]
Iqbal has severely criticized the western democracy as it is
based on the liberalism. The complete liberty of thoughts, led
the thoughtless populace, to the destruction. If thinking is
misguided, the freedom of thought can easily transformed a human
being into a beast.
آزادئ افکار سے ہے ان کی تباہی
رکھتے نہیں جو فکر و تدبّر کا سلیقہ
ہو فکر اگر خام تو آزادئ افکار
انسان کو حیوان بنانے کا طریقہ![52]
In Bal-i-Jibrael, Iqbal explains the concept, in detail and
says; If individuals of a nation, have unlimited liberty and
freedom of thought that can prove dangerous for the nation. He
adds that man’s God-given liberty of thought has illuminated the
world, but the unrestricted freedom of thought is an annovation
of the Devil.
اس قوم میں ہے شوخئ اندیشہ خطرناک
جس قوم کے افراد ہوں ہر بند سے آزاد
گو فکر خدا داد سے روشن ہے زمانہ
آزادئ افکار ہے ابلیس کی ایجاد[53]
Iqbal has faith that the western democracy and civilization can
not save the Islamic world. It neither can solve their problems
nor can give them a new start in life. How the western
civilization can save the others? When it has been died in
itself. According to Iqbal these facts should be revealed to
those, who have shut their eyes in following the western
civilization.
نظر آتے نہیں بے پردہ حقائق ان کو
آنکھ جن کی ہوئی محکومی و تقلید سے کور
زندہ کر سکتی ہے ایران و عرب کو کیونکر
یہ فرنگی مدنیّت کہ جو ہے لب گور![54]
Moreover, it was the fear of the adverse effects of western
liberalism, which compelled Iqbal to give a warning to the
Muslims. he has the belief that indiscriminate importance of
liberal ideas could be ruinous to the stability of the Muslim
faith. It could sow seeds of discord and hate and thus deprive
the community of its basic unity, which is so vital to the
Islamic ideology.[55] He explained this point of view in one of
his lecture in the following words.
We heartily welcome the liberal movement in Modern Islam; but it
must also admitted that the appearance of liberal ideas in Islam
constitutes also the most critical moment in the history of
Islam. Liberalism has tendency to act as a free of
disintegration Further our religious and political reforms in
their zeal for liberalism may over step the proper limit of
reform in the absence of a check on their youthful fervour.[56]
Iqbal has the faith that western democracy and ‘Satan’ are
closely related with each others, having the same designs. He
explains the western democracy in the words of ‘Satan’. We have
camouflaged the kingship, as democracy, and the man became aware
of this fact. Therefore, the western democracy is as hateful as
the old kingship.
ہم نے خود شاہی کو پہنایا ہے جہموری لباس
جب ذرا آدم ہوا ہے، خود شناس و خود نگر[57]
Iqbal advises the Muslims to avoid the western democracy, as it
is religiouless and faithless, He adds that the religion is the
thing; which provides the atmosphere of love, with each other,
sacrifices for others and welfare for poors and have notes;
therefore you should follow religion, instead of secular western
democracy. This is the right path, which is the path of
modernization and development. Therefore, Iqbal invites all the
Muslims of the world to adopt this right path, leaving the
western politics, as your country and wealth are depending upon
it. As he says in the following couplet.
iii) Liberalism:
The sovereignty of people and the divorce of religion from
politics resulted in the too much liberalism, which is the basic
principle of western democracy. This individual liberty led in
many unethical and inhuman acts. The young generation involves
itself in the sexual and such other
iv) Capitalism
Capitalism is another characteristic of western democracy, which
means that all sources of income of state, are in the hands of
individuals. Individuals are independent in earning money and
having unlimite property, using what so ever means, they like.
In simple words, capitalism is a decentralization of wealth an
exploitation of it, by the capitalists. Iqbal has felt this
situation, and has been deeply influenced by the miserablw
condition of the poors and workers; which was stigma for
humanity and the fact made him critical of the relationship of
capital and labour, and capitalism and democracy. Iqbal wrote
several poems on the subject, which manifest concern and anxiety
of million of workers and labourers.[58] In hi poem Khizr-i-Rah,
he presents the picture of the miserable conditions of the
workers and labourers. He says that the. have been victimized by
the deceitful capitalists for the last many centuries. Their
hard earned wages are distributed among them by the capitalists,
as if they are alms. The, capitalists have been victorious but
to their deceitful tactics; while the workers have been ruined
completely due to their simplicity. Iqbal advises the workers,
to realise the situation of the world, which has been changed in
their favour, a new era has been started both in East and West.
اے کہ تجھ کو کھا گیا سرمایہ دار حیلہ گر
شاخ آہو پر رہی صدیوں تلک تری برات
دست دولت آفرین کو مزدیوں دیتی رہی
اہل ثروت جیسے دیتے ہیں غریبوں کو زکات
مکر کی چالوں سے بازی لے گیا سرمایہ دار
انتہائے سادگی سے کھا گيا مزدور مات
اٹھ کہ اب بزم جہاں کا اور ہی انداز ہے
مشرق و مغرب میں تیرے دور کا آغاز ہے[59]
Another fact which pains Iqbal is that the industrialists are
leading luxurious life at the cost of workers. He says, that the
industrialists do not know the name of “labour and work”, but
they are luxuriating because they are owner of the industries.
He gives initiative to workers according to God’s order “The man
receives for what he struggles”. He adds that why capitalists
enjoy at the cost of workers?
کارخانے کا ہے مالک مردک ناکردہ کار
عیش کا پتلا ہے محنت ہے ناسازگار
حکم حق ہے لیس للانسان الا ماسعی
کھائے کیوں مزدور کی محنت کا پھل سرمایہ دار
In Payam-i-Mushriq, Iqbal also conveyed this message to the
working class and points out that the riches are garbed in the
costly cloths; while the workers have to wear the tattered
rages. The riches are becoming healthy by the blood of poors and
their wealth is the product of the sweat of workers.
زمزد بندۂ کر پاس پوش و محنت کش
نصیب خواجۂ نہ کردہ کار، رخت حریر
ز خون من چوز لو فربہی کلیارا
بزدر بازوئے من دست سلطنت ہمہ گیر
Iqbal, being a Muslim, could not approve the capitalism and the
capital gained by the capitalists, because Islam is the greatest
opponent of the social and economic evils, which stem from
capitalism.[60] Therefore, he hates democracy; which is based on
capitalism.
Iqbal was aware of the backwardness and bankruptcy of the
peasants also, as the workers were victims of industrialist and
capitalist, like was the peasants were living a helpless life
under the faudalism.[61] He believes that faudalism is
equivalent to capitalism. Iqbal, in a poem entitled, Punjab Kai
Dehkan Sai, has expressed his idea on the subject. He addresses
the peasants and says that what is the secret of your life? that
you have been leading a helpless life for centuries, and spark
of life has been quenched in it; Now the dawn is near at hand,
the time to rise.
بتا کیا تیری زندگي کا ہے، راز
ہزاروں برس ہے تو خاک باز
اسی خاک میں دب گئي تیری آگ
سحر کی اذان ہوگئي اب تو جاگ[62]
In another poem Iqbal forcefully directs poors to shake the
domination of aristocratic masters, as if a peasant, who can not
get his due share or earning from the field, he has the right to
burn it down. Likewise, if masses have no share in government,
they must destroy it.
اٹھو مری دنیا کے غریبوں کو جگا دو!
کاخ امرا کے دو و دیوار ہلا دو
جس کھیت سے دہقاں کو میسر نہ ہو روزی
اس کھیت کے ہر خوشۂ گندم کو جلا دو[63]
Iqbal in a poem entitled Lenin Khuda Kai ‘Hazur Main provides a
vivid picture of capitalist society. According to him, in beauty
of architecture, cleanliness and rush of people, the banks have
super passed the churches. Unemployment, immorality, drinking
and poverty are the great triumphs of the western civilization.
O! God, you are just and all powerful; then why? the life of
workers is extremely miserable. He also prays to bring to end
the lust of the capitalists and industrialists, as the whole
world is waiting for this.
رعنائی تعمیر میں، رونق میں، صفا میں
گرجوں سے کہیں بڑھ کے ہیں بنکوں کی عمارات
بیکاری و عریانی و مئے خواری و افلاس
کیا کم ہیں فرنگی مدنیت کے فتوحات
تو قادر و عادل ہے مگر تیرے جہاں میں
ہیں تلخ بہت بندۂ مزدور کے اوقات
کب ڈوبے گا سرمایہ پرستی کا سفینہ
دنیا ہے تری منتظر، روز مکافات[64]
Iqbal was keen interested in the betterment of the workers and
he was convinced that a political system based on justice and
corruption would disappear with the realisation that there is
something higher in human value than the naked lust for
political and material gains.[65] As such the Muslims must lend
their maximum support to every effort, which is directed towards
the betterment of the working class.[66] In his another poem,
Iqbal points out that the old traditional politics has become
disgraceful and the world is sick of monarchs and aristocrates.
The age of capitalism is near to an end like a jugler, whose
play is off.
پرانی سیاست گری خوار ہے
زمین میر و سلطاں سے بیزار ہے
گيا دور سرمایہ داری گیا
تماشا دکھا کر مداری گیا[67]
v) Nationalism
The fifth important principle of westren democracy is
nationalism; which means a condition of mind, feelings or
sentiments of a group of people living in a well defined
geographic area; speaking a common language, possessing a
literatue in which their aspirations are expressed, attached to
common traditions and customs, venerating their own heroes, and
some cases having the same religion.[68] Thus the bases of
western nationalism are; Geography, race, language, traditions,
customs, common ideals etc. The western nationalism evolved
itself as a code of life for European; which opened the way of
hostility to others and prepared nations for territorial
expansion. In this method, the nationalism proves itself fatal
to the interests of humanity and becomes a source of endless
conflict and aggression.
Keeping in view, the characteristics of nationalism, Iqbal
condemns the nationalism as well as the western democracy. Iqbal
expresses his hate for nationalism, as it is against the spirit
of Islam. He further says that Islam and nationalism can not go
hand in hand. He elaborates the concepts, that the attachment to
a place leads to ruin and live like a fish in ocean, free from
all attachments.
Migration from homeland, is a ‘sunnah’ of the Holy prophet
(PBUH); and be a witness to the truth of the prophethood.
ہو قید مقامی تو نتیجہ ہے تباہی
رہ بحر میں آزاد وطن صورت ماہی
ہے ترک وطن سنت محبوب الہی
دے تو بھی نبوت کی صداقت پہ گواہی[69]
Iqbal again condemns the concept of territorial nationalism. He
says that nationalism is a devil of the present time,
nationalism and the religion are against each other and these
can not go together. In the view point of politicians,
nationalism is different thing from the practice of the Holy
prophet.
ان تازہ خداؤں میں بڑا سب سے وطن ہے
جو پیرہن اس کا ہے، وہ مذہب کا کفن ہے
گفتار سیاست میں وطن اور ہی کچھ ہے
ارشاد نبوت میں وطن اور ہی کچھ ہے[70]
Iqbal believes that nationalism is the main hurdle in the
establishment of Muslim universalism or Muslim Ummah. Iqbal
wrote a letter to prof. Nichlson in which he said: Nationalism
is a belief based on race and colour, which is hostile to the
world and humanity. The people who love the humanity, should
start a war against the annovation of ‘Satan’.[71]
Iqbal has the faith that the nationalism has many demerits and
disadvantages and the nationalism preaches for the hostility and
aggression in the world; which results” in the distranquillity.
He adds that all the antions of the world are at war for
territory and trade, due to nationalism. Moreover, nationalism
is the cause for unethical politics and destruction of the
weeks.
اقوام جہاں میں ہے رقابت تو اسی سے
تسخیر ہے مقصود تجارت تو اسی سے
خالی ہے صداقت سے سیاست تو اسی سے
کمزور کا گھر ہوتا ہے غارت تو اسی سے[72]
In an article, Iqbal again condemns nationalism and exposes the
designs of the western world against the Muslims. He says:
“Very early from the writings of European scholars, I had come
know that the basic scheme of western Imperialism was to
dismember the unity of Muslim World by popularising territorial
nationalism among its various components.”[73]
Iqbal believes that by the concept of territorial nationalism,
imperialism arises and the birth of imperialism results in the
world wars. Numberless people lose their lives and billion
dollars money is spent in the wars; which could be utilized for
the welfare of humanity.[74]
vi) Party System
The Party system is another corner stone of the philosophy of
western’ democracy. According to the system, like minded people
come together, with the objective to be victorious at national
polls, to get the political power of the state. This grouping of
the people constitutes the political party. The party system is
considered a part and parcel of western democracy.
In the western democracy, whole nation is divided in to two
parties i.e. rulers and ruled, mainly due to the existence of
political parties. The ruling group tries to stick with the
power. While the opponent group tries to oust and replace the
ruling group; which results in conflict and tussle. The conflict
and tussle further divide the nation in the two warring parties
or groups.
Party discipline is another phenomenon, which restricts the
individual’s liberty, and the choice of the leadership. One has
to cast vote in favour of the candidate nominated by one’s
party, like wise one can not differ the policy of the party.
Whenever, such a party comes in power, it rules according to
party discipline, ignoring the wishes of the people; which
results in the dictatorship of the party. Thus, under the party
system and legislative regimentation, the ideals of democracy
have been considerably damaged. Individual responsibility
converts into collective responsibility.
Iqbal opposes democracy for the reasons also and says, that
there is no difference between democracy and dictatorship. The
dictator, the monarch, and the aristocrate guise themselves in
the shape of democrates. Thus the democracy, dictatorship and
kingship are the same thing. He points out in Bang-i-Dara that
the westren democracy is the old wine in new bottle, which
contains no tunes other than imperial one. It is devil of
despotims, dancing in the shape of democracy and you take it as
a fairy of freedom.
ہے وہی ساز کہن مغرب کا جمہوری نظام
جس کے پردوں میں نہیں غیر از نوائے قیصري
دیو استبداد جہوری قبا میں پائے کوب
تو سمجھتا ہے، یہ آزادی کی ہے نیلم پری![75]
Iqbal very rightly says that democracy, being a methodology, is
in it self neither good nor bad. The democracy usually operates
through party system; which makes democracy a bad one. Iqbal
believes that ‘Democracy has a tendency to foster the spirit of
legality. It is not in itself bad; but unfortunately it tends to
displace the purely moral stand point and make the illegal and
wrong identical in meaning.[76] Iqbal adds, whether democracy is
good or bad? But you do not know about the new methodologies of
the world.
خیر ہے سلطانی جمہور کا غوغا کہ شر
تو جہاں کے تازہ فتنوں سے نہیں ہے باخبر![77]
Iqbal has also the faith, that there is no rule of democracy,
but the old systems are prevailing. Either kings or politicians,
are ruling the world; both are the same, only faces are
different.
درو حاضر ہے حقیقت میں وہی عہد قدیم
اہل سّجادہ ہیں یا اہل سیاست ہیں امام[78]
According to Iqbal, the politicians, who come in power through
party system, never allow the people, to share the power, with
them like the kings. Thus the politicians and kings are defacto
rulers of the world.[79]
شریک حکم غلاموں کو کر نہیں کر سکتے
خریدتے ہیں فقط ان کے جوہر ادراک
کرتے ہیں غلاموں کو غلامی پہ رضا مند
تاویل مسائل کا بناتے ہیں بہانہ[80]
Iqbal analyses his discussion on the western democracy in these
words:
“The idealism of Europe never becomes a living factor in the
life and the result is perverted ego seeking itself through
mutually intolerate democracies, whose sole function is to
exploit the poor in the interest of rich”.[81]
Iqbal concludes the discussion and says that on the surface,
western democracy appears radiant but its inside is darker than
the despotism of Changiz Khan.
تو نے کیا دیکھا نہیں مغرب کا جمہوری نظام
چہرہ روشن، اندروں چنگیز سے تاریک تر![82]
IQBAL’S CONCEPT OF POLITY
Iqbal was deeply convinced by Khilafat and wanted to see it in
force. In one of his couplet he says that the age of Khilafat
i.e. polity is near to hand and all the signs of the governments
other than polity should be abolished.
سلطانی جمہور کا آتا ہے زمانہ
جو نقش کہن تم کو نظر آئے مٹا دو![83]
Iqbal also calls polity by the name of spiritual democracy. He
has derived the idea of polity from the fallible like other
Muslims and subject to the same impersonal authority of Divine
Law.[84]
5. Although, the caliph is head of state and he can be directly
sued in the ordinary law courts.
6. The caliph can indicate his successor, but the nomination is
not valid without confirmation by the people.[85]
7. The electors have rights to demand the deposition of the
caliph or dismissal of his officials if their behavour is in
contravention to the Laws of Sharia”.[86]
Iqbal describes his concept of polity or spiritual democracy,
with qualitative approach. Which is possible only in a society,
practicing Islamic principles. Such a system Iqbal calls the
Kingdom of God on the earth. In a letter to R.A. Nicholson, he
writes:
“The Kingdom of God on earth means the democracy or more or less
unique individuals, presided over by the most unique
individuals, possible on the earth”87]
Iqbal throws further light on the God’s kingdom on earth:
“It is here and now that men and women must learn to live
justly, decently, sincerely; It is here that they must
ceaselessly cultivate their manifold inner powers and try to
control the tremendous forces of Nature: It is here that they
must learn to utilise them not for domination, but for service
nor for repression and destruction but for creation and
enrichment; it is here that by. devotion to the highest ideals,
they can become co-partners in God’s creative activity and can
help in establishment of God’s kingdom on earth”.[88]
Iqbal also explains the Islamic institution of election i.e.
election of unique individual or ideal person as caliph by
quoting the words of Hazrat Umar, the second Caliph.
“Although Abu Bakr’s immediate election from the point of view
of the need of the time and the consequences was extremely
appropriate and opportune, this method of election can not be
decreed to be established principle in the religion of Islam
that election, which is based on a partial
vote of people should be considered null and void”.[89]
He further, explains that, “The electorates by casting their
votes or united and independent act of electing best political
government in a determinate and reliable person, whom they
consider worthy of ‘trust’.[90]
Iqbal in his book entitled, “The Reconstruction of Religious
Thought in Islam”, has explained the term Ijtihad
(re-orientation, in which law can be effected by the Believers).
Iqbal says that “according to spirit of Islam, ‘Imamat’ can be
vested in body of persons or elected assembly.[91] The
Republican form of government is not only thoroughly consistent
with spirit of Islam, but it has also become a necessity in view
of the new forces, that are set free in the world of Islam.”[92]
By it means, that the political sovereignty is vested in Muslim
individual, and Imamat is an elected institution.
Iqbal considers that liberty and equality are important
principles of the Muslim polity. He makes an exposition in this
regard, as under:
“The basis of Islamic polity in eyes of Law of religion is
absolute and uncontained freedom in fact the act of election is
a kind of contract between the caliph and Muslim. Muslim reign
of the Holy Prophet and his four Right-guided successors. This
was the period in Islamic history, when the polity was actually
practiced. Therefore, Iqbal advises the Muslims to come in bond
of the Holy Prophet and to submit to him.
Iqbal has formed a system of government from the period
enlisting these qualities; the truthfulness, the justice, the
bravery, and freedom from privileges and prerogatives. He says:
دم تقریر تھی مسلم کی صداقت بے باک
عدل اس کا تھا قوی، لوث مراعات سے پاک
شجر فطرت مسلم تھا حیا سے نم ناک
تھا شجاعت میں وہ اک ہستی فوق الادراک
Iqbal further elaborating the system, enlisted additional
principles of polity; which are reproduced below:-
1. Election is the only way to express the will of the people,
and partial expression of people will is considered null and
void.
2. De facto political sovereignty resides with the people.
3. The Muslim commonwealth is based on the absolute equality of
all Muslims.
4. The caliph is not necessarily the high priest of Islam. He is
not the representative of God on earth. He is populace,
according to which the caliph is duty round to perform
particular functions for which he is to be held entirely
responsible.[93] He adds that all the Muslims have absolute
equal rights and uncontained freedom in the Muslim State.
Moreover the caliph is not above the Muslim populace, but he is
responsible for the duties and’ functions assigned to him, if he
fails to perform his duties he is removable by the people. If
caliph does not rule according to Sharia his right to rule is
forfeited,[94] and his electorates can demand for his dismissal
or his officials accordingly.
Iqbal’s concept of ‘self involves a plea for respect for
one-self and respect for one’s fellowmen too.[95] The concept
has constructed a society which is not compatible in the world.
The society has evolved a political system and is well known as
polity.
گریز از طرز جمہوری، غلام پختہ کارے شو
کہ از مغز دو صد خر فکر انسانی نمی آید
As discussed above, Iqbal is deeply convinced by ‘polity’. He
presents it as an ideal government. In Armughan-i-Hijaz, he
says, that Khilafat is the ideal of the Muslims and any system
which has monarchical attributes is undesirable for them.
Monarchy or democracy is nothing but deceit and treachery, while
Khilafat is a protection of the will of God. But Iqbal is aware
of the fact that this ideal did not last for a long time in
Islamic history. Under the Umayyads, Abba sides and Ottomans the
Khilafat became hereditary monarchy. It lost its original
purpose and massage which had been conveyed by the Holy Prophet
(PBUH) for the emancipation of mankind.
خلافت بر مقام ما گواہی است
حرام است آنچہ برما پادشاہی است
ملوکیت ہمہ مکراست و نیرنگ
خلافت حفظ ناموس الہی است
عرب خودرا بہ نور مصطفی سوخت
چراغ مردۂ مشرق بر افروخت
و لیکن آں خلافت راہ گم کرد
کہ اوّل مؤمناں را شاہی آموخت[96]
Thus, according to Iqbal ‘polity’ is rooted deeply in Quran and
Sunnah and is completely different from the democracy of the
west. He had an abiding interest in the growth and development
of the human personality, which thrive and prosper only in an
atmosphere where there is no fear except God. He desired that
permanent spiritual values should form the cornerstone of every
political system, whether it is Presidential or Parliamentary.
In Pakistan, we can also implement the concept of Iqbal’s
‘polity’. by establishing Imamat based on the principles of
Sharia; making head of state or executive responsible to the
people as well as God; electing pious, trustworthy, and
faithfully individuals to the assemblies who are mainly
responsible to establish kingdom of God in the earth; protecting
the rights of masses; declaring judiciary independent and making
caliph sueable in the ordinary court of law and making
electorate independent, so that they can demand the dismissal of
caliph, if he does not perform in accordance with the Sharia.
NOTES
[1] Milton C, Cumming Jr. and Devid Wise; Democracy Under
Pressure (H.B 1977) p 16.
[2] Roger Hillsman; To Govern America - p. 21. (Harper & Row
Publication 1979).
[3] Ibid. p.
[4] Ibid. p.30
[5] J. Roland Pennock; Democratic Political Theory (Princeton
1979) P. 3
[6] Herodotus; History of Persian War (New York 1942) p. 252
[7] Bryce J. Modern Democracies Vol. I p. 20.
[8] Oxford: (Clarendon Press 1961).
[9] George Cornewell Lewis; Remarks on the Use and Abuse of some
Pol. terms. (Columbia 1970) P. 84.
[10] Seymour M. Lipset; Political Man. p. 27 (Garden City N.Y.
1960).
[11] Charles Bettelheim; Democracy in the World of Tensions.
(Chicago 1951) p. 3.
[12] Corry and Abraham: “Elements of Democratic Govt.” (New York
1958) p.
[13] Encyclopedia of Social Sciences Vol. II. p. 76.
[14] Dr. Parveen Shaukat Ali; The Political Philosophy of Iqbal,
(Lahore 1978) p. 2G0.
[15] Prof. Muhammad Manawwar; Demensions of Iqbal, (Lahore) p.
39.
[16] Dr. Parveen Shaukat Ali; Op. Cit., p. 26.
[17] Abdul Rehman Abdul Kurdi: The Islamic State, (New York
1984) P. 63
[18] Ibid: P. 64.
[19] Rosenthal E. I.J: Political Thought in Medieval Islam,
(Cambridge 1958) P.21
[20] Quamar-ud-Din Khan; The Political Thought of Ibn Taymiyah,
(Lahore 1983) p. 99
[21] Hamid Enayat; Modern Islamic Political Thought. (London
1982) p. 12G
[22] Ibid.
[23] Al-Quran 28:77.
[24] Al-Quran 4: 58-59.
[25] Young T. Cuyler; “Shariah and Democracy”. P. 64 in
International Islamic Colloquium Paper Lahore (1961).
[26] Khalifa Abdul Hakim; Islamic Ideology (Lahore 1980) p. 242.
[27] Ibid. p. 237.
[28] Prof. Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri; Quranic Basis of
Constitutional theory, (Lahore) P. 14.
[29] Hamid Enayat: Op, Cit., p: 128
[30] Ibid P. 129.
[31] Hakim Mohammad Said (Ed.): The Islamic Concept of State,
(Karachi 1983) p. 15
[32] Ibid p. 33
[33] Khalifa Abdul Hakim. Op, Cit., p. 242
[34] Dr. Parveen Shaukat Ali; Op, Cit; p. 262.
[35] Ibid.,
[36] Prof. Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri; Op. Cit., p. 27.
[37] Hakim Muhammad Said (Ed.); Op. Cit., p. 94.
[38] Abdul Rehman Abdul Kurdi; Op Cit., p. 17.
[39] Muslim, Imarah; 14.
[40] Prof. Muhammad Tahir-ul-Qadri; Op. Cit; p. 20-21.
[41] Abdul Rehman Abdul Kurdi; Op, Cit., pp. 80-81.
[42] Dr. Waheed qureshi; Selection from Iqbal Review. (ahore
1983) P 216
[43] Iqbal : Payam-i-Mushraq, P. 135
[44] Iqbal; Zarib-i-Kalim, P.150
[45] Iqbal; Banmg-i-Dara, P. 296.
[46] Ibid.
[47] Dr. Waheed Qureshi; Op.Cit; P. 218
[48] Iqbal; Bal-i-Jibrael:, P. 215
[49] Zarb-i-Kalim; P. 154
[50] Ibid. P. 144.
[51] Iqbal; Armughan-i-Hijaz (Urdu) P.7.
[52] Iqbal; Bal-i-Jibrael. P.146.
[53] Iqbal; Zarb-i-Kalim, ; P. 74.
[54] Iqbal; Bal-i-Jibrael. P. 222.
[55] Dr. Parveen Shaukat Ali; Op. Cit; P.220.
[56] Iqbal; The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam;
(Lahore 1959) PP. 162-63. Also quoted by Dr. Parveen Shaukat
Ali; ) Op. Cit. P. 220.
[57] Dr. Parveen Shaukat Ali; Op. Cit. P. 241.
[58] Iqbal; Bang-i-Dara; PP. 297-98.
[59] Iqbal; Payam-i-Mushriq, P. 257.
[60] Bashir Ahmad Dar; Iqbal’s Philosphy of Society; (Lahore) P.
22.
[61] Dr. Parveen Shaukat Ali; Op.Cit. P. 243
[62] Iqbal; Bal-i-Jibrael, P. 204
[63] Ibid; P. 149
[64] Ibid; P. 146-47.
[65] Dr. Parveen Shaukat ALi; Op. Cit. P. 244.
[66] Bashir Ahmed Dar; Op. Cit; P. 34
[67] Iqbal; Bal-i-Jibrael, P. 167
[68] Louis L. Suyder; Global Mini-Nationalism, (Autonomy or
Independence) (London 1982) Intro: P. XV
[69] Iqbal; Bang-i-Dara, P. 174.
[70] Ibid.
[71] Mian Mohammad Afzal; Iqbal and Global Politics, (Urdu)
(Lahore 1978) P.54.
[72] Iqbal; Bang-i-Dara. P. 174.
[73] S.A.V. Moeeni; Maqalat-i-lqbal (Urdu) (Lahore 1963) P. 222.
[74] Dr. S. M. Minhajuddin;Afqar-o-Taswarat-i-lqbal;(Mulatan
1985) P. 217.
[75] Already referred.
[76] Dr. Javid Iqbal (Ed) Stray Reflections (Lahore) P. 120
[77] Iqbal; Armughan-i-Hjaz, P. 216.
[78] Iqbal; Zarb-i-Kalim, P. 145.
[79] Ibid P. 141.
[80] Ibid P. 142.
[81] Iqbal; The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
(Lahore 1959) P. 179.
[82] Iqbal; Armughan-i-Hijaz, P. 210.
[83] Iqbal; Bal-i-Jibrael, p. 110.
[84] Iqbal; Bang-i-Dara, p. 223.
[85] Iqbal; Bang-i-Dara, p. 226.
[86] S.A. Vahid; Thought and Reflections of lqbal: (Lahore) pp.
58-66; also quoted by Dr. Parveen Shaukat Ali, op. cit.
[87] A.J. Arberry Eng. Tr. Javid Hama, Intro. p. 11.
[88] Prof. Muhammad Munawwar; Dimensions of lqbal, (Lahore 1986)
p. 182.
[89] Iqbal; Khilafat-i-Islamia; Also quoted by S. Hasan Ahmad;
lqbal; his Political Ideas at Crossroad. (Aligarh 1979) p. 21.
[90] Ibid.
[91] Iqbal; The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam
edited by Muhammad Saeed Sheikh, (Lahore 1986_) p. 124.
[92] Ibid. p. 125.
[93] S. Hassan Ahmad; lqbal: His Political Ideqs at Crossroads;
(Aligarh 1979) p. 22.
[94] Prof. Muhammad Munawwar; op. cit., p. 53.
[95] Hafeez Malik; Iqbal, (Golumbia University 1971) p. 181.
[96] Iqbal; Armughan-i-Hijaz, P. 126.
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